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( Zhang Heng)
Zhang Heng (traditional Chinese ??; simplified Chinese ??; pinyin Zhang Héng; Wade-Giles Chang Heng) (CE&_160;78–139) was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet, statesman, and literary scholar from Nanyang, Henan, and lived during the Eastern Han Dynasty (CE&_160;25–220) of China. He was educated in the capital cities of Luoyang and Chang'an, and began his career as a minor civil servant in Nanyang. Eventually, he became Chief Astronomer, Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages, and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court. His uncompromising stances on certain historical and calendrical issues led to Zhang being considered a controversial figure, which prevented him from becoming an official court historian. His political rivalry with the palace eunuchs during the reign of Emperor Shun (r.&_160;125–144) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator of Hejian, in Hebei. He returned home to Nanyang for a short time, before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138. He died there a year later, in 139. Zhang applied his extensive knowledge of mechanics and gears in several of his inventions. He invented the world's first water-powered armillary sphere, to represent astronomical observation;[1] improved the inflow water clock by adding another tank; and invented the world's first seismometer, which discerned the cardinal direction of an earthquake 500&_160;km (310&_160;mi) away.[1][3][4] Furthermore, he improved previous Chinese calculations of the formula for pi. In addition to documenting about 14,000 stars in his extensive star catalogue, Zhang also posited theories about the Moon and its relationship to the Sun; specifically, he discussed the Moon's sphericity, its illumination by reflecting sunlight on one side and remaining dark on the other, and the nature of solar and lunar eclipses. His fu (rhapsody) and shi poetry were renowned and commented on by later Chinese writers. Zhang received many posthumous honors for his scholarship and ingenuity, and is considered a polymath by some scholars. Some modern scholars have also compared his work in astronomy to that of Ptolemy (CE&_160;86–161). Born in the town of Xi'e in Nanyang Commandery (located north of modern Nanyang City, Henan province), Zhang Heng came from a distinguished but not very affluent family.[5][6][7] His grandfather, Zhang Kan, had been governor of a commandery, and one of the leaders who supported the restoration of the Han Dynasty by Emperor Guangwu (r.&_160;25–57), following the death of the usurper Wang Mang and his short-lived Xin Dynasty (CE&_160;9–23).[5][8][9][10] At age ten, Zhang's father died, leaving him in the care of his mother and grandmother.[9] An accomplished writer in his youth, Zhang left home in 95 to pursue his studies at universities in the ancient capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang.[5] While traveling to Luoyang, Zhang passed by a hot spring near Mount Li and dedicated one of his earliest fu poems to it, the Wenquan (??).[11] After studying for some years at Luoyang's Imperial University (Taixue), he became well-versed in the classics, and befriended notable persons, such as the mathematician and calligrapher Cui Yuan (78–143), the official and philosophical commentator Ma Rong (79–166), and the philosopher Wang Fu (78–163).[5][7] Government authorities offered Zhang appointments to several offices, including a position as one of the Three Excellencies, yet he acted modestly and turned down those positions.[5][11] At age twenty-three, he returned home with the title "Officer of Merit in Nanyang," serving as the master of documents under the administration of Governor Bao De (in office from 103–111).[5][8][7] As he was charged with composing inscriptions and dirges for Bao De, he gained experience in writing official documents.[8] As Officer of Merit in the commandery, he was also responsible for local appointments to office and recommendations to the capital of nominees for higher office.[12] He spent much of his time composing rhapsodies on the capital cities. When Bao De was recalled to the capital in 111, to serve as a minister of finance, Zhang continued his literary work at home in Xi'e.[5][8][11] Zhang Heng began his studies in astronomy at the age of thirty, and began publishing his works in astronomy and mathematics.[8] In 112, Zhang was summoned to the court of Emperor An of Han (r.&_160;106–125), who had heard of Zhang's expertise in mathematics.[8] When he was nominated to serve at the capital, Zhang was escorted by carriage—a symbol of his official status—to Luoyang, where he became a court gentleman working for the Imperial Secretariat.[5][8] He was promoted to Chief Astronomer for the Han court under Emperor An, serving his first term from 115–120 and his second under the succeeding emperor from 126–132.[8] As Chief Astronomer, Zhang was a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies, the latter one of Nine Ministers ranked just below the Three Excellencies.[13] In addition to recording heavenly observations and portents, preparing the calendar, and reporting which days were auspicious or not, Zhang was also in charge of an advanced literacy test for all candidates of the Imperial Secretariat and Censorate (who were expected to know at least 9,000 Chinese characters and all major writing styles).[13][14] Under Emperor An, Zhang also served as Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages under the Ministry of Guards, in charge of the reception of memorials (containing policy and administrative suggestions) submitted to the throne as well as nominees for official appointments.[15][16]
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