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( Treaty of Brest-Litovsk)
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, at Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus) between the Russian SFSR and the Central Powers, marking Russia's exit from World War I. While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year, it gave some relief to Bolsheviks waging the civil war in all directions and contributed to or affirmed the independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine, Lithuania and Poland. Peace negotiations began on December 22, 1917, a week after the conclusion of an armistice between Russia and the Central Powers, at Brest-Litovsk (modern Brest, Belarus, near the Polish border). The Germans were represented officially by Foreign Secretary Richard von Kühlmann, but the most important figure in shaping the peace on the German side was General Max Hoffmann, Chief of Staff of the German armies on the Eastern Front (Oberkommando-Ostfront). Austria-Hungary was represented by Foreign Minister Ottokar Czernin, and from the Ottoman Empire came Talat Pasha. The Germans demanded the "independence" of Poland and Lithuania, which they already occupied, while the Bolsheviks demanded "peace without annexations or indemnities" — in other words, a settlement under which the revolutionary government that succeeded the Russian Empire would give neither territory nor money. It is important to note that these negotiations were taking place about nine months after the United States had declared war on Germany, but before the Americans were making a significant contribution on the Western Front. The Bolsheviks likely believed that the Germans would seize the opportunity to make a separate peace with Russia (even on moderate terms) so that they would have an opportunity to defeat France and Great Britain before the Americans arrived, even if this meant they would have to settle for less generous terms. What the Bolsheviks failed to realize was that the Germans had grossly underestimated America's military capacity and were not expecting the Americans to be able to make a meaningful impact in Europe until 1919 at the earliest. Had the Germans made a more accurate assessment of America's capabilities they may well have offered the Bolsheviks more lenient terms.[citation needed]
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